Labeling GMO Products

 

The issue of labeling genetically modified organisms (GMO) has been a contentious one for many years. This is because it has involved a situation where companies producing these products believe that the obligation to label them leads to higher food costs. On the other hand, a majority of individuals in society believe that it is essential for these companies to label their GMO products because to do so would help them ensure that they have an understanding of what they are consuming. The real issue in this case is one concerning labeling rather than one that involves individuals undertaking a crusade against GMO products in general. This paper argues that it is essential for the USDA to ensure that it requires manufacturers to label their GMO products at all times because it is in the public interest to do so.

One of the most important reasons for having labels on food is that rather than only involving matters concerning safety, it is also informational. The information provided to consumers is essential in the advancement of their knowledge concerning the products that they are using. All consumers have the right to have knowledge concerning what they are eating because to do so ensures that they are able to make informed decisions (Hanes). Undertaking a science-based approach in the process would be fundamental in enhancing consumer knowledge because they will come to the realization that the food manufacturers care about their welfare while at the same time allow them to only consume those products that are of their own choosing. Having knowledge concerning the material differences that exist between food that has been bioengineered and those that are produced traditionally could help in creating a situation where consumer choice is greatly advanced. The requirement that companies label their GNO products is therefore essential in advancing their interests of consumers because it will ensure that their safety is promoted. It will also help in the promotion of initiatives aimed at helping consumers make informed decisions concerning what they would like or not like to consume. This situation will also provide government agencies with the initiative to confirm that products are actually what they are labeled so that government oversight on consumer safety can be advanced effectively. Therefore, the USDA has to ensure that the requirement of GMO product labeling is made mandatory so that consumer safety and information can be made a priority.

One of the most significant factors concerning labeling GMO is that it promotes lesser confusion when it comes to consumers making decisions concerning food purchases. Labeling is an essential action because it allows consumers to make sure that they know about the sources of their food and the process through which these foods were manufactured. This argument has been countered by the food industry, which for the most part considers GMO labels as being restrictive to such an extent that they are likely to increase food costs. Food manufacturers have further argued that labeling could increase production costs because they would be forced to ensure that they have different supply chains and delivery mechanisms for their products (Kimbrell and Fedoroff). This argument does not have merit because it is the responsibility of food manufacturers to ensure that they promote the interests of their consumers. Without undertaking such actions, they would be putting their consumers at risk because the latter will not have knowledge concerning the food that they are consuming. Basic labeling would also not be costly for food producers because they are required to label all their products, especially when it comes to their content. Therefore, it is hypocritical of them to state that they would incur higher production costs because of the requirement that they label their GMO products. These companies seem to be using the argument that labeling will only confuse their consumers to serve their own interests, especially at a time when many of them have the desire to undertake to produce GMO foods on a larger scale than they are already.

Labeling GMO products is essential because despite these products having been used for many years, there have not been independent long-term studies concerning their effect on human health. In this case, it is important that labeling is conducted so that consumers can choose whether or not to use these products. The same can be said when it comes to the credibility of manufacturers because the latter have argued that for the most part, they do not find any safety issues with their GMO products (Rosen; Haspel). Under these circumstances, the credibility of products as well as their manufacturers would be considerably undermined because consumers will have serious trust issues when it comes to the products that they find on retail shelves. Consequently, companies have to make sure that they label all their products based on their origins so that it can be possible for consumers, who are concerned about their health, to make informed decisions concerning what they are consuming. It will also ensure that there is an increase in the level of trust that consumers have towards food manufacturing companies. A major example of successful GMO labeling is that conducted in EU countries, which despite the process having been conducted have seen no increase in food costs, and have not had problems with consumer confusion over products (Bakar Webb). Instead, consumers have had confusion over foods alleviated through labeling; advancing their interests over those of manufacturing companies.

The labeling of GMO products by food manufacturers is an important step towards the promotion of the peace of mind of consumers. It will allow these individuals to ensure that they make informed decisions concerning the products that they are consuming, especially keeping in mind issues such as their health and safety. Because long term effects of GMO products have not been researched on independently, labeling these products could go a long way towards protecting consumer interests. It will further allow research on the subject to be more effectively conducted in the interest of finding out what the effects of GMO products on health are, in both the short- and long-term.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Works Cited

Bakar Webb, A. "Declare Support for GMO-Free Zones." New Straits Times, 15 Mar, 2016, pp. 16, SIRS Issues Researcher, https://sks-sirs-com.dcccd.idm.oclc.org.

Hanes, Stephanie. "GMO Labels: The Great American Food Fight." Christian Science Monitor, 25 Jun, 2016, pp. n/a, SIRS Issues Researcher, https://sks-sirs-com.dcccd.idm.oclc.org.

Haspel, Tamar. "In the GMO Debate, we have to Weigh the Risks of Roundup." Washington Post, 07 Oct, 2015, pp. E.4, SIRS Issues Researcher, https://sks-sirs-com.dcccd.idm.oclc.org.

Kimbrell, Andrew, and Nina Fedoroff. "Should Companies be Required to Label Genetically Modified Foods?" Wall Street Journal, 13 Jul, 2015, pp. R.1, SIRS Issues Researcher, https://sks-sirs-com.dcccd.idm.oclc.org.

Rosen, Ben. "GMO Crops are Safe, Say Scientists. should they be Labeled Anyway?" Christian Science Monitor, 17 May, 2016, pp. n/a, SIRS Issues Researcher, https://sks-sirs-com.dcccd.idm.oclc.org.

Robotics and Biomedicine

Over the past century, there have been significant advancements in the field of medicine which have ensured that there is an improvement and extension in the lives of human beings all over the world. These advancements have ensured that life expectancy has not only improved, but there is also an opportunity for medical practitioners to undertake practical measures aimed at ensuring that diseases and medical conditions that were thought to be untreatable are not only treated, but also prevented before they develop. Medical advancements have come about mainly because of the considerable developments when it comes to biomedicine and robotics, which have a potential of leading to rapid prevention and treatment of diseases. However, despite the developments in these two fields, it is important to note that they also pose considerable ethical problems, and issues that might arise as a result of their practice. In this paper, there will be an attempt to analyze the importance of biomedicine and robotics while also considering the potential ethical implications that might come about as a result.

The advancements that have been made in biomedicine and robotics have led to a potential of saving lives more effectively. This is especially the case considering that a considerable number of people are often in need of specialized healing and new organs to ensure that their lives are saved. Through the development of such technologies as 3D printing, a potential for the development of new organs for people who need them has created a lot of excitement in the medical field (Ventola 704). This is because a large number of people are often on the waiting line for organs, with only a few organ donors available at a time. However, through the use of 3D printing of body parts, it is possible that individuals might end up being able to get organ replacements at a much faster rate than is currently the case. Therefore, the continued research into this technology could go a long way towards enhancing human life and saving those individuals that were previously considered a lost cause. Furthermore, through the use of 3D printing technology, it will be possible to ensure that there is the creation of means to reduce the medical costs of patients; allowing for a reduction of overall public healthcare costs.

Another important advancement in biomedicine is the development of cloning. Cloning, unlike 3D printing of organs, is one of the most controversial developments when it comes to biomedicine. This is because its potential practice raises a considerable number of ethical issues that are unlikely to be effectively addressed. Among the advantages of cloning technology is that it has the potential of ensuring that it brings about the development of organs and other parts of the body that are specially tailored for the individuals that need them. Therefore, the creation of clones through the use of the cells of an individual could help this individual have an unlimited source of organ replacements that could ensure an extension of his life (Macklin 76). However, one of the biggest concerns about this practice is that it leads to the creation and destruction of life. Clones, despite their artificial origins, raise an ethical concern because once they come to life; they will be considered human beings, with the same rights as any other person in society. Under such circumstances, it would be unethical to simply harvest body parts from them without considering their feelings in a bid to enhance the life of their parent. Clones, despite their origins, are different individuals from their parents, and this means that since they are human beings, they have to be treated as such. The use of clones for medical purposes rather than as a means of creating children for individuals who cannot give birth to their own is unethical and should not be considered when it comes to human beings.

Stem cell research, which is one of the most important developments in biomedicine, is another controversial ethical issue. This is because while it has been tried out in animals, its use in human beings is considered to be unethical. One of the reasons behind this stance is that it involves harvesting stem cells from fetuses and embryonic cells, the latter which are considered to be essentially human beings (Munsie and Hyun). Religious and human rights groups have raised this concern and have pointed out that undertaking the harvesting of stem cells from human beings could be an equivalent of opening a Pandora’s Box because it could unleash the uncontrolled harvesting of cells from fellow human beings in their early stage of development in the name of advancing the treatment of others. A consequence is that even though stem cell research has the potential of leading to advances in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease among other debilitating diseases and medical conditions; it cannot be used without strict regulations to the practice. These regulations have to cover such sensitive issues as the killing of human beings in their early stage of development, as well as the need to define exactly at what stage is an individual to be considered a human being.

In the medical field, robotics has a potential of playing an essential part in helping to improve the lives of individuals. The development of robotic parts to replace those parts of the body that have been lost or amputated is an important role that this technology can play (Stahl and Coeckelbergh). In recent years, there have been important developments in medical robotics, as seen where individuals are provided with robotic replacements for those limbs that they have lost either because of accidents or during amputations. The result has been that robotic has come to be seen as an important means of helping in advancing the lives of individuals that would otherwise have had the quality of their lives significantly reduced. Robotics is an essential aspect of making sure that there is the creation of powerful means to bring about the development of medical practices that not only improve the lives of individuals, but allow for the advancement of technologies aimed at helping individuals achieve their highest potential.

Among the biggest developments in robotics is nanomedicine, which has the potential of being used to fight diseases in the body more effectively. Nanomedicine is essential in the development of means through which to ensure that the body is kept under constant surveillance so that when diseases come up, they can be effectively defeated before they overwhelm the body (Kazemi, Majidinia, and Jamali 1). In addition, this technology also has the potential of being used to ensure that preventative measures are taken against diseases so that even potentially terminal ones can be prevented from developing (Resnik and Tinkle). However, one of the most significant ethical issues that arise in this situation is whether the injection of robotic technology in the human body could potentially open the way for malicious individuals to have access to private information of individuals that use the technology. It is therefore essential that as nanomedicine is adopted, strict regulations and guidelines are put in place in order to prevent its abuse for malignant purposes.

In conclusion, biomedicine and robotic have and will continue to have a positive impact on the health. Their potential for ensuring that there is the advancement of the interests of patients is essential in making sure that there is the development of strict regulations aimed at building up responsible use among medical practitioners. The observance of ethics should be the guiding force behind the developments made in biomedicine and robotics because it will ensure that there is the advancement of these aspects of medicine in a manner that is acceptable to most, if not all, members of society.

The Risk of a Cholera Outbreak during the Hajj

Millions of pilgrims attend the annual Hajj to the holy city of Mecca and because of the mass gatherings involved, there is often a high potential of public health challenges coming up. The large influx of people from across the globe and the considerable amount of time that they spend in close proximity to one another leads to a situation where there is a high risk of disease transmission (1). The transmission of such disease is not only a matter of concern for the pilgrims, but also for the local population. The introduction of such disease as cholera can end up putting the entire public health system of Saudi Arabia, as well as those of the home countries of the pilgrims at a compromise because they might bring back this disease with them on their return. It is therefore extremely pertinent to ensure that there is an effective understanding of the cholera epidemic and the manner through which it has affected the Hajj pilgrims in the past and its potential of return in future events.

Cholera epidemics in Mecca have been recorded since the nineteenth century with the first recorded case appearing in 1831 (2). However, these epidemics developed in the Hejaz region but since 1912, there have been no reported epidemics that have developed in Mecca and its environs. It is important to note that prior to the use of steam ships in 1866 to transport pilgrims, caravan transport was the most common means of transportation (3). Because of the latter, it was possible for epidemics to die out prior to the pilgrims’ arrival in Mecca because of the long duration of their journeys (4, 5). Steam navigation that was used to transport pilgrims from Egypt and India to the Hejaz not only led to considerable proximity, but also the increase in the likelihood of individuals carrying epidemics to Mecca and back to their home countries (6). It is important to note that despite epidemics arising from time to time in the subsequent years, the most recent cholera outbreak took place in the Hajj of 1989, which is an extremely important public health victory for the Saudi government. During the latter outbreak, about 102 pilgrims were affected, and the disease was contained (7).

Despite the precautions that have been taken by the Saudi government, it is important to note that the country is still at risk of a cholera epidemic. This is especially considering that there is currently a cholera epidemic in neighboring Yemen, which has affected more than 300,000 people (8). Thus, the potential of this epidemic spreading during the Hajj to Mecca is highly significant because it could end up spreading to the rest of the world as pilgrims return home. In recent years, the pilgrimage has drawn between 2 and 4 million individuals from all over the world. The outbreak of cholera in Yemen as well as in some African countries might end up presenting a serious risk to all pilgrims during the Hajj and after returning to their countries (9, 10). It is however noteworthy that because of the strict measures that it has taken; Saudi Arabia has not had a cholera outbreak in many years. This situation therefore means that the government has taken appropriate measures to counter the potential of the disease appearing in its borders, especially during the Hajj.

It is therefore important to consider the potential of cholera during the Hajj a serious threat. By putting such considerations at the forefront of public health policy, the government of Saudi Arabia can work hand in hand with its partners, especially the countries from which pilgrims originate, to ensure that threats are discovered early and eliminated prior to the Hajj (11). Furthermore, Saudi Arabia can make sure to reinforce its surveillance and rapid test system in order to detect cases early (12). The latter system has worked extremely well in recent years because outbreaks of cholera have not been recorded in decades. Also, the Saudi government should work hand in hand with the World Health Organization (WHO) in order to undertake a joint risk assessment of the situation so that they can develop recommendations to curb any potential outbreak in a manner that is clinically, operationally, and financially sustainable (13). Such measures, as well as the strict implementation of WHO guidelines to prevent cholera, and also undertaking campaigns to raise awareness about this disease during the Hajj could go a long way towards its prevention. Finally, Saudi Arabia should work towards enhancing its measures to protect both pilgrims and locals through regular screenings and testing from the potential of cholera outbreaks.

There is a threat of a #cholera epidemic in #Mariupol

Centralized water supply/sewerage is not working.the city is drowning in garbage and sewage.Almost every yard has mass burials and the summer heat has accelerated the decomposition of thousands of corpses under the rubble

— Надія (@Hope_grayblonde) June 7, 2022

Reference List

1.         Niu S, Xu M. Impact of Hajj on Global Health Security. Journal of religion and health. 2019;58(1):289-302.

2.         Omar W. The Mecca Pilgrimage: Its Epidemiological Significance and Control. Postgraduate medical journal. 1952;28(319):269.

3.         Miller M, editor The Business of the Hajj: Seaborne Commerce and the Movement of Peoples. Seascapes, Littoral Cultures, and Trans-Oceanic Exchanges” Washington, DC: Library of Congress; 2003.

4.         Brower BC. The Hajj by Land. The Hajj: Pilgrimage in Islam. 2015:87.

5.         Low MC. Empire and the Hajj: pilgrims, plagues, and pan-Islam under British surveillance, 1865–1908. International Journal of Middle East Studies. 2008;40(2):269-90.

6.         Boyle SA. Cholera, Colonialism, and Pilgrimage: Exploring Global/Local Exchange in the Central Egyptian Delta, 1848-1907. Journal of World History. 2015:581-604.

7.         Ahmed QA, Arabi YM, Memish ZA. Health risks at the Hajj. The Lancet. 2006;367(9515):1008-15.

8.         VOA. WHO Warns of Cholera Risk at Hajj, Praises Saudi Preparedness. VOA; 2017.

9.         Green A. Cholera outbreak in the horn of Africa. The Lancet. 2017;389(10085):2179.

10.       Almutairi MM, Alsalem WS, Hassanain M, Hotez PJ. Hajj, Umrah, and the neglected tropical diseases. PLoS neglected tropical diseases. 2018;12(8):e0006539.

11.       Al-Tawfiq JA, Memish ZA. The Hajj 2019 Vaccine Requirements and Possible New Challenges. Journal of epidemiology and global health. 2019.

12.       Alotaibi BM, Yezli S, Bin Saeed A-AA, Turkestani A, Alawam AH, Bieh KL. Strengthening health security at the Hajj mass gatherings: characteristics of the infectious diseases surveillance systems operational during the 2015 Hajj. Journal of travel medicine. 2017;24(3):1-6.

13.       Zumla A, McCloskey B, Endericks T, Azhar EI, Petersen E. The challenges of cholera at the 2017 Hajj pilgrimage. The Lancet Infectious Diseases. 2017;17(9):895-7.

Healthcare Coverage

      Health insurance includes a range of methods for guaranteeing healthcare services at no or reduced costs and these include government provided programs and individually purchased programs or products. The original health insurance concept was designed to spread the risk of incurring large claims across a broad population (some of which will actually have no claims at all in a given calendar year). In the United States, a complex system of contracts, specialized terms, selection of risk (selecting individuals who have fewer claims) and regulations at both the state and federal levels have sprouted from the original concept.

         Healthcare coverage is a very controversial topic especially in the United States. Many attempts have been made beginning in the twentieth century to provide a universal healthcare coverage to all those Americans who were not insured but most of them ended up in failure due to the influence of some groups, like doctors, who saw it as a way of curtailing their freedom to practice in the service of their patients. Many of the early efforts to provide discounted healthcare were pressured out of existence by physician groups but the rising cost of healthcare has made it a mandatory issue to be considered and discussed within the political circles. Healthcare coverage has become a very important matter within the United States because of the increasing costs which prevents many of those Americans in great need of the said medical care from getting it. This is mostly due to the fact that they can barely afford to pay the premiums demanded by insurance companies, or if they are able to, they can only afford insurance with little coverage. Attempts have been made by the federal government to ensure that healthcare coverage is available for all Americans by requiring all employers to provide health insurance for their workers while the government covers those who are not employed.

         This proposition has however been opposed by some sectors of the economy, most notably, small businesses. These small businesses balk at the cost of providing insurance for more employees because, they argue, the government does not provide enough resources to enable them to bear these costs. The proposition that businesses expand coverage for their employees would force these businesses to cut wages, lay off workers, and perhaps even cease operations because of the high cost of insurance. The government could choose to bear the cost of all health care, as is done in Canada, because it can control the cost of health care to a greater degree than it does in the current system. This proposition has been opposed by many organizations which argue that this move would make access to health care more unequal because the rich and influential in society would just be able to skip the line and get preferential treatment as opposed to those who were there first. Moreover, this system would discourage further research into the development of new pharmaceuticals and medical devices which are an essential part of the improvement of medical services.

        In conclusion, I propose that the best way to deal with this issue is to first implement the universal healthcare coverage and then deal with the problems that arise from it as they come because there is no perfect system in the world.

The future of electronic medical records

           The electronic medical records are a software based solution that provides for the digital computerization, recording, and maintenance of patient and medical practice information and it deals the need to set up excellence in patient care and practicality in medical practice. It is one of the main tools currently being used to fix the ailing health care system through patient monitoring which will enable doctors to shift from only curing ailments to preventing them instead. One of the main goals for using this system is to increase efficiency within the healthcare system to the point of significantly reducing health care costs while saving millions of lives. Over the past five years, health-care providers, insurers, drug companies and research institutions have initiated a massive transformation from a paper-based health-care system to one that increasingly relies on electronic records to manage patient information with full government support.

               The increasing number of those who are expected to be regular users of the American health care system due to the passage of the health care reform bill has been touted as one of the reasons why digitizing the medical data of patients is very important in managing the already burdened health care system. Putting people’s health information in databases will not only reduce redundancies but is already shifting the way people receive and seek health care. With better contact to an individualized health record, whether it is through an official electronic record by a doctor, a private record created by an individual, or a fast instant messaging contact with a doctor, the customary roles of doctors and patients are experiencing swift changes. It is expected that in the future, patients will arrive for appointments with their doctors having gone through their medical records and the recommended articles about their health concerns.

            It is believed that even more people will be able to skip the hospital visit altogether due to their busy schedules and will instead prefer to stay in touch with their doctors through text messaging and emails in order to receive answers for their health concerns. Electronic medical records are the future because in emergencies, such as attending to a patient with a heart attack, finding and reading the paper medical records of a patient costs a lot of time, and this time might be crucial in the saving of the life of this patient. If electronic data is available, then it would be easier to treat whatever medical condition a patient has because the doctors have almost instant access to their medical records, and in fact, the chances of such a patient living would be significantly higher.

        Electronic medical records are here to stay because they reduce the chances of physicians making errors in their diagnosis of a patient’s illness due to the fact that they will have the patient’s entire medical history before they start attending on him or her. Although electronic medical records have been said to have saved the lives of many and that there are even higher possibilities of their doing so in future, it still has the problem of cost. Installing an electronic medical records system in a hospital or clinic, for example, can be very expensive and many doctors opt not to do it because of the cost. Unless cheaper ways are found to ensure that electronic data systems are more available to doctors at cheaper prices, then the future of electronic medical records will be threatened, not only increasing the risk to the lives of the patients but will also continue to burden the already strained medical health care system as it is today, making medical services even slower.

          However, the health reform law and the stimulus package put in place recently by the American government have encouraged the shifting of the health care system from paper records to electronic ones. Billions of dollars have been put into incentive programs to reward doctors who meet the standards set for establishing electronic records. The problem with having electronic medical records currently is that although many medical practitioners keep electronic records, they have no centralized system through which the patient’s information can be shared and this leads to the same problem as that experienced by the use of the paper system, that is, the loss of time. It is estimated that fewer than a quarter of all medical practitioners in the United States have the necessary technology to share their patients’ medical information with other medical practitioners and it is believed that the efficient sharing of this information will not be in place for another five years.

          The main beneficiaries of the electronic medical records will be the patients themselves because sometimes, medical and diagnostic errors occur because complete patient information is not available at the time of patient care and doctors are forced to provide care based on a patient’s recollection or in worst cases not information at all. An integrated electronic medical records system could help resolve this problem because doctors will have all the information they need about a patient’s medical history hence reducing the chances of errors occurring.

          Furthermore, the use of electronic medical records protects the patient’s privacy from eavesdropping because these records are password protected hence limiting their access to only the patient and their doctor. It has been found that adequate technology is available to protect the patient’s privacy and this can be found cheaply. However, the making of medical records electronic can have some unforeseen effects in the future because even though it is safer in matters of privacy, any breach in the security of the electronic system can completely compromise the privacy of a patient and their information might be available for all to see especially online. With very few controls over the internet, the patient’s medical history and personal information can no longer be kept private.

                In conclusion, it can be said that the future of electronic medical records is assured because not only is it faster to use but it is also more efficient than the paper medical records. It can be used to reduce the time which a patient spends at a clinic or hospital because all their information will be available for the doctor and there would be no need for this patient to be asked numerous questions about their medical history that they may not be able to answer accurately. This new system will also enable doctors to see more patients in a day than they do currently and it may also allow them to make a diagnosis of their patients remotely because with a medical history at hand, all he will have to do is make a prescription and only if the case is serious will he require to see the patient.

Nurse Staffing and the Quality of Patient Care

For many years, the safe staffing of nurses has been linked to the positive outcomes of patients. It has been noticed that nurse staffing has an effect on the length in which patients stay in hospital as well as the efficiency of their treatment. Adequate nurse staffing in hospitals has the outcome of decreasing the duration of patients’ hospital stay. It has also been found that there is a decrease in the number of medical errors made concerning patients. Furthermore, adequate staffing also has an impact on nurses because they become more motivated in their work, which increases their efficiency. This efficiency helps the patient as it improves the care which they are given, and this leads to the patient’s swift recovery. 

Adequate nurse staffing in hospitals reduces the patients’ mortality rates due to the fact that they have the full attention of the nurses throughout their convalescence. It is, therefore, important for hospitals to ensure that they have adequate nurse staffing so that only the best possible care can be provided for patients. Moreover, with a balanced nurse to patient ratio, the patients’ hospital stay will be reduced, meaning that more attention will be given to the remaining patients.

In conclusion, it can be said that nurse staffing does indeed have an impact on the quality of care that patients receive. If the ratio between nurses and patients is well balanced, then the patients will have the best care and their recovery will be quite swift. However, if there are fewer nurses in relation to the patients they serve, then the latter will have very poor service. If fact, their recovery rate, will be very low while their mortality rate will go up significantly. Nurse staffing should always be given priority when dealing with matters concerning healthcare to ensure that services of good quality are provided for patients.

Implications of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act on the Healthcare Environment

The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act is one of the most important policy initiatives of the American government in the contemporary world. The first of its aims to ensure that there is collaboration between government, individuals, and employers in order to achieve near-universal healthcare coverage. The second aim is to ensure that al of those individuals who receive health insurance coverage are able to achieve a high level of fairness, affordability, and quality. Another aim is to ensure that individuals who have coverage are able to receive a high quality of care without wasteful spending through the improvement of efficiency and accountability to patients. This policy also aims at promoting the development of a situation where there is a strengthening of primary care with the objective of easier access to preventative healthcare; essentially encouraging the reduction of healthcare costs. The final objective of this policy is to ensure that there is investment in needed healthcare facilities in so that it can be possible to bring about the expansion of clinical preventative care that is useful in the creation of a stable healthcare system. Patient Protection and Affordable Care is essential in the fixing the healthcare system so that a majority of the population can have access to quality care.

One of the most fundamental aspects of the American healthcare system is that it is one of the most expensive in the world. Unlike in European countries, where there are strong social welfare systems that ensure universal healthcare, in the United States, prior to Affordable Care, it was quite difficult for individuals to access quality healthcare. Furthermore, there was a situation where very few individuals had health insurance; meaning that some treatable health conditions ended up becoming a burden on patients. Therefore, the move by government to ensure that there was the expansion of healthcare insurance as well as an increase in investment in medical facilities to cater for the needs of individuals in need of them. This legislation had considerable support from the Obama administration, which promoted it by proposing that it was not only a matter of government policy, but also a moral issue that could not be ignored. In addition, while there was an attempt by the Democratic majority in Congress to take on a bipartisan approach, this ended up not being the case because the policy faced considerable opposition from conservative elements in the Republican Party such as the Tea Party. Moreover, some lobby groups associated with the healthcare complex were also involved in pushing their agendas in the development of the policy.

Among the considerations that were made during the development of Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act was the establishment of a single-payer Medicare for All Act. However, this option was discarded because of the belief that it would not be able to acquire support within the Senate that was filibuster-proof. The Medicare for All Act would have been one of the most progressive accomplishments of the policy because it would have ensured that all individuals were able to have health insurance. However, this alternative was not considered because it would have met with considerable opposition, especially from the conservative elements in the Republican Party. Furthermore, there was the fear that if such an act was passed by Congress, it would encourage freeloading among those individuals who were not willing to pay their fair share of insurance premiums. Therefore, the most progressive aspects of the Affordable Care Act were discarded because of the potential of considerable opposition to it. Furthermore, the need to ensure that the bipartisan concerns were addressed so that the act could be passed meant that compromises had to be made in order to create a situation where it was possible for majority support to be comfortably obtained.

The implementation of the Affordable Care Act was conducted at the state level. However, it was not implemented according to its original design because of considerable resistance that the legislation received from its opponents. A consequence was that states were given the option of making the decision of whether or not to expand their Medicaid programs. Since the objective of promoting the full adoption of Affordable Care in the whole of the United States was not achieved, it has remained a considerable point of contention on both sides of the political divide. However, a number of states ended up expanding their Medicaid to such an extent that a large number of individuals who previously did not have the means to have quality healthcare currently have access to it. This situation shows that if there had been proper bipartisan support for the policy, it would have led to universal healthcare coverage in the country to such an extent that it would have promoted the health of all Americans while reducing costs. Those states that opted not to expand their Medicaid created a situation where the federal government had to revise its estimates concerning how Affordable Care would work. This meant that it was essential to reduce the expectations concerning the savings that would have been made following implementation in all states.

While the policy started with good intentions for the healthcare system, it ended up not being able to achieve its intended goals because of resistance towards it both at the political and state levels. However, it was able to solve a considerable part of the original problem because it allowed individuals who could not previously afford it to have healthcare coverage. The progress of this policy was interrupted because some states opted not to adopt it because of the belief that it would increase their Medicaid costs. The lack of bipartisan support for this policy, especially considering Republican resistance, meant that its chances of success were limited to those states that adopted it. A consequence was that because some states opted not to adopt Affordable Care, the cost savings ended up being much less than was originally projected. Thus, this policy can be considered to have been neither a success nor a failure because while it was able to achieve its objectives in some states, in others, it had a hard time gaining acceptance.

The Role of Communication in Patient Safety

In nursing, communication is one of the most essential elements in ensuring that the safety of the patients has been met, because without it, then the patient outcome rates will be considerably low. For many years, effective communication has been linked to the positive outcomes of patients. It has been noticed that nurse communication has an effect on the length in which patients stay in hospital as well as the efficiency of their treatment. Adequate nurse communication in medical centers has the outcome of decreasing the duration of patients’ stay in hospital. It has also been found that there is a decrease in the number of medical errors made concerning patients. Furthermore, adequate communication also has an impact on nurses because they become more motivated in their work, which increases their efficiency. This efficiency helps the patient as it improves the care which they are given, and this leads to the patient’s swift recovery.

One of the factors which influence communication between nurses and patients is the complexity of the hospital and nursing systems, so that the larger and more complex they are, the higher the risk that the potential for patient errors will be increased. It is therefore necessary to ensure that adequate communication between the various hospital systems is instituted so that the number of such errors can be reduced or done away with. The quality of care depends completely on the accuracy and completeness of information being available to the nurses who care for the patients. While this is important, it should be noted that the accuracy of the information becomes outdated over time and this is the reason why more, up to date information has to be collected to ensure that the caregivers provide the best service possible to the patient.

Errors tend to occur when during the communication of a patient’s medication. This usually happens when there is a misinterpretation of the various abbreviations or acronyms to the drugs which have been prescribed to the patient. This creates a situation where there is the potential of a patient taking the wrong drugs, taking the drugs at the wrong time of the day, or even worse, taking an overdose of the prescribed drugs. It is therefore necessary to ensure that errors in the writing down of instructions for the patient or caregiver are avoided and that the person writing the said instructions is alert at all times to the potential of making mistakes. Among the recommendations that can be made is that there must be a standardization of all the abbreviations and acronyms for the drugs used in the medical field so that there can be no confusion over the type of drugs that have been prescribed. It has been found that many drugs have similar names which may lead to the nurse giving the patient the wrong medicine. To prevent such incidences, it has been recommended that capital and small letters be used to differentiate the drugs with similar names to avoid confusion. This will work to ensure that there is uniformity in the communication of medication and this will ultimately promote the safety of the patients to whom the medication is prescribed. With uniformity in communication, the work of the nurses will become less cumbersome because they will be able to be accurate in their administration of medication.

In many hospital systems, there is always a breakdown in communication due to the fact that the nursing staff is usually afraid to report errors because of the potential of being punished. This fear has made it difficult for errors to be corrected and has ensured that the outcome for patients is greatly diminished. The lack of adequate communication has created a scenario where nurses are not able to conduct their activities efficiently and this has come to have a devastating impact on the safety of the patients. Hospital management should create an environment where nurses and other hospital staff are comfortable enough to report any errors which they find without any fear of punishment. In order to achieve this, the management of the hospital should have frequent communication with the nurses who deal directly with the patients and know firsthand the needs and requirement of the latter. Such regular communication ensures that the nursing staff is free with the management, and because of this, errors which would not otherwise have been pointed out come to be dealt with quickly to ensure the safety of the patients involved.

The effort of the healthcare industry to improve the safety of patients is being hampered because of the poor communication between caregivers and patients as well as the lack of adequate tools for measuring the safety of patients. Furthermore, despite the availability of a wide array of medical equipment and practices, they cannot be effective without there being adequate communication between the caregivers and the patients. In order to make sure that medical care is efficient, there is a need for the establishment of mechanisms or structures which will enable medical staff to communicate with patients. This will ensure that medical staff  to acquire adequate and accurate data to help them make the correct judgment concerning how to deal with patients. This will create a situation where the number of errors are reduced and the effectiveness of treatment, hence patient safety.

While a few decades ago the incidents of errors being made by hospital staff were low, today, such errors have become common and the biggest cause of this is poor communication. This has become so widespread that it is a constant worry for the management of hospitals. The best way through which caregiver can ensure the safety of their patients is when they have adequate knowledge of the condition of their patient. This ensure that the caregiver is better able to communicate with the patient and it creates an environment where the patient is confident  in his or her caregiver and this helps to improve patient outcome.

Communication is an important factor in ensuring the safety and high outcome for patients and it is essential that nurses develop their communication skills. Communication is one of the most common problems facing the medical profession today and it is because of this that the number of errors has, over time, increased. It is therefore necessary for adequate communication to be developed with patients to ensure that they have a high standard of safety.

Nursing Shortage

Nursing shortage is a global problem which, of not checked, is fast spreading to levels where it can no longer be managed. Nursing is a profession that is least understood by many in the world, even those who are considered to be the most educated. In most cases, it is a profession which is taken for granted, with nurses having to work in conditions that can only be considered to be inhospitable for them. What many governments and policymakers fail to understand is the fact that nurses are a crucial factor in the healthcare system and that without them, this system will most likely collapse. Nurses are needed in the care for individuals in hospitals as well as the general population of the world because of their unique ability not only to save the lives of their patients, but also for the purpose of improving their outcomes. When one considers the current situation, it can be said that the shortage has mainly been caused by the public misunderstanding of exactly what nurses do. In most cases, the public holds take the duties that nurses perform for granted, giving more importance to doctors than to nurses. This has given rise to the notion that the nursing profession is not important, therefore influencing the decision of many people who would have gone into the profession to choose other professions which are deemed to be more important. The shortage can be said to be caused by three main factors which include poor working conditions, limited funding available for research, and finally, the short staffing in hospitals.

The nursing profession has been taken for granted for a long time and it is only recently that its importance has come to be recognized as a shortage has developed. This shortage in the number of nurses in hospitals has created a situation where there is understaffing meaning that the available nurses have to work long hours (Mee & Robinson, 2003). These long hours has a tendency of taking a toll on the physical and mental wellbeing of the nurses involved and may, in fact, lead to a reduction in their performance levels. This reduction in their performance means that the wellbeing of their patients is placed in jeopardy since some of them may require more attention from the nurses in order to make a quick recovery. A nursing shortage, therefore, creates a situation where patients are not provided with the best healthcare available and this is mainly due to the low nurse to patient ratio that the shortage creates. If this shortage is not countered with efficient policies, then it will most likely end up costing the health systems of many countries dear. This is because of the fact that without nurses, there will be a low patient outcome since the patients will not be receiving the care they need to recover effectively. Furthermore, as the aging population continues to increase and the demand for nurses also increases, there is the possibility that the mortality rate of the human population will be quite high in the coming years.

The nursing shortage has dire implications on the future of the nursing profession and among these is the possibility that in future, there may be a shortage of teachers to teach the new generation of nurses. This is mainly due to the fact that the number of experience nurses available to guide the younger generation of nurses into the profession will be extremely low. This will create a situation where it will be impossible for nurses to work effectively most of their action will be done through trial and error, ensuring that the patient outcome remains low. The future of this profession is quite bleak because it has for a long time been associated to women, who in the modern times have a wide range of career option open to them. This means that the idea of nursing as the premier professional option for women is fast fading away. It is therefore prudent for healthcare policymakers to make the profession more attractive to the younger generation through improving the working conditions, providing enough funds for education and research, and in this economically motivated world, ensuring that nurses are given salaries that are decent.

For many years, the safe staffing of nurses has been linked to the positive outcomes of patients. It has been noticed that nurse staffing has an effect on the length in which patients stay in hospital as well as the efficiency of their treatment. Adequate nurse staffing in hospitals has the outcome of decreasing the duration of patients’ hospital stay. It has also been found that there is a decrease in the number of medical errors made concerning patients. Furthermore, adequate staffing also has an impact on nurses because they become more motivated in their work, which increases their efficiency. This efficiency helps the patient as it improves the care which they are given, and this leads to the patient’s swift recovery. Adequate nurse staffing in hospitals reduces the patients’ mortality rates due to the fact that they have the full attention of the nurses throughout their convalescence. It is, therefore, important for hospitals to ensure that they have adequate nurse staffing so that only the best possible care can be provided for patients. Moreover, with a balanced nurse to patient ratio, the patients’ hospital stay will be reduced, meaning that more attention will be given to the remaining patients.

It is a fact that nurse staffing does indeed have an impact on the quality of care that patients receive. If the ratio between nurses and patients is well balanced, then the patients will have the best care and their recovery will be quite swift. However, if there are fewer nurses in relation to the patients they serve, then the latter will have very poor service. In fact, their recovery rate, will be very low while their mortality rate will go up significantly. Nurse staffing should always be given priority when dealing with matters concerning healthcare to ensure that services of good quality are provided for patients.

Pneumonia

Pneumonia is a medical state that affects the air sacs in the lungs identified as alveoli and it can be defined further as an inflammatory lung condition. This condition is tends to be caused by either viral or bacterial infections, as well as certain microorganisms or some drugs which individuals are ingesting. In addition, pneumonia might be caused by autoimmune diseases which make it easier for infections to occur in the lungs. Among the most typical symptoms of this condition coughs, pain in the chest, a certain amount of fever, as well as the person infected having difficulty in breathing. There are various tools which are used in diagnosing this condition and these include the use of x-rays, or taking a sample of sputum for testing. There are various types of vaccines available for the prevention of pneumonia and these are complemented by the treatment measures available for those who suffer from the infection. The treatment of this condition depends on the agent that caused it, whether it is viral or bacterial. If the infection is caused by bacteria, then the condition is treated using antibiotics but if the condition is caused by a virus, on the other hand, the most common treatment used are neuraminidase inhibitors. When an infection is deemed to be severe, the most likely cause of action that doctors tend to take is to have the patient admitted to hospital because if left untreated, this condition often proves to be fatal. It is estimated that on an annual basis, pneumonia affects over four hundred million people and of these, about four million meet their deaths from the condition. While this condition has been made treatable with the advancement of the development of antibiotic therapy as well as vaccines, pneumonia still remains one of the most dangerous as well as the a leading cause of death, especially in developing countries. The people, in these countries, who are at the most risk of infection, tend to be the young, the elderly, and those who are extremely ill.

Those who are infected by pneumonia tend to display certain symptoms which provide the evidence that they have indeed been infected. Among the symptoms that they display include coughing, a fever, a stabbing pain in the chest when taking deep breaths, and most of all, an increase in the rate of respiration because of the shortness of breath that they experience. One of the most prominent symptoms that is displayed by older people is that of being confused. Among children, on the other hand, there is often a fever, coughing, as well as difficulty in breathing. When making a diagnosis of the condition, too much insistence should not be put on the detection of a fever because this is a common symptom that can be found in quite a number of diseases such as malaria among other severe diseases. In addition, coughs should also not be considered to be a common symptom among children who are less than a year old and instead, more severe signs should be looked out for. Among the severe symptoms of this condition is the appearance of a blue tinge on the skin, a decrease in the infected person’s thirst, convulsions, and the most severe of all, a decrease in consciousness level. Whatever the source of infection, whether bacterial or viral, the victims of pneumonia often display the same symptoms and this is the reason why specific tests have to be carried out to ensure that the correct treatment is prescribed to a patient.

While pneumonia is often caused by either bacterial or viral infections, it is not uncommon to find that even fungi and other parasites can cause this condition. It has, however been estimated that of the over one hundred agents that can potentially cause pneumonia, only a few of these agents are actually responsible for the majority of the cases involved. In a little more than 45% of the cases studied in children, it has been found that the causing agents have been a mixture of bacterial and viral infections. Among adults, on the other hand, the potential for there being a mixed bacterial and viral infection as a cause for pneumonia has been estimated to be about 15%. The causing agent of an infection cannot be identified in more than half of the cases tested, despite the tests being conducted carefully. This is the reason why pneumonia has come to be a all-purpose term for any illness that causes the inflammation of the lungs. There are various factors which influence the development of pneumonia and these include the following: smoking, chronic kidney disease, immunodeficiency among other factors. The use of medications that are meant for the suppression of acids as well as old age are risk factors that also expose individuals to pneumonia.

The diagnosis of pneumonia is often done using a combination of both the physical symptoms as well as the conducting of a chest x-ray but despite these; the underlying causative agents of this condition are difficult to determine. This is because of the fact that definitive tests for the determination of the causative agents of this condition have yet to be made. According to the World Health Organization, this condition in children is defined as their having coughs or difficulty in breathing as well as having a rapid respiratory rate. The latter is defined as rapid when the rate of breathing is more than sixty breaths a minute, especially in children who are less than two months old. It has been found that in children, it is much more effective to check for an increased respiratory rate and chest in drawing than having to listen to their chest crackles using a stethoscope. Among adults, it is not necessary to conduct investigations in cases where there are mild symptoms, as long as all the vital signs of the individual are normal. Among those people who require hospitalization after infection, it is recommended that chest radiography and blood tests should be conducted. It is a fact that many of the viral infections that cause pneumonia are based on influenza, and because of this, it must not only be confirmed by symptoms, but also through the conducting of tests.

Among the best ways that have been found to prevent pneumonia is the use of vaccines as well as taking measures which are appropriate for the treatment of other health problems that might be a cause of the condition. It has been estimated that if preventive measures are to be taken to deal with the condition, the quite a large number of children, nearly half a million, would be saved from death per annum. It has also been found that if the necessary treatment for the condition is made available, especially for children, worldwide, then the mortality rates would be reduced by another half a million, meaning that a combination of preventative measures as well as treatments would ensure that the mortality rates among children would be brought down by a million, an extremely significant reduction indeed. Pneumonia vaccines prevent some infections that are either caused by viruses or bacteria in the entire human population, but influenza vaccines have also been found to be effective in preventing infections. It is recommended that individuals who are over six months old should undergo vaccination every year so that the risk of infection, especially those caused by viruses, can be reduced.

It is recommended that those people who smoke cease to do so because they are at a higher risk of getting infected than other people. Furthermore, the reduction of indoor air pollution goes a long way in preventing the development of pneumonia, and to achieve this end, indoor cooking using such fuels as wood should cease. Other preventative measures include the keeping of good general hygiene as well as coughing into ones sleeve in order to prevent any possible infection from getting transferred to others. It is further recommended that those people who are infected by the condition wear surgical masks because to do so will ensure that the risk of the infection being spread within the population is greatly reduced. Pneumonia is sometimes caused by underlying diseases such as HIV or malnutrition, and as a preventative measure, these diseases have to be treated appropriately so that this risk can be reduced. Mothers who exclusively breastfeed their children who are less than six months old ensure that the risk of their contracting pneumonia is reduced, and that if these children are infected, then there is a reduction in the severity of the condition.

When a specialist in the infections that cause pneumonia is making a treatment plan, he or she should also consider other possible treatments for the condition apart from the administration of oral antibiotics. If there is no improvement in the condition of the patient through home care, and the symptoms he or she displays seem to worsen, then it will be necessary for such a person to be hospitalized so that he can receive specialized care. There are times when the only option left for specialists is to design a treatment plan which include the trial of new drugs or treatment methods for their patients. Such options tend to come about especially in situations where other treatments have failed to work. While these new treatments are designed to help the patients involved, they also help in the assessment of how different drugs work on them. This helps in future research, which comes up with even better treatments for pneumonia. In conclusion, it can be said that pneumonia is a medical condition that has plagued the human population for a long time, and it can affect anyone, no matter how young or old they are. Because of this, it is essential to ensure that enough funding is provided so that research in the treatment of this condition can be advanced. In almost every instance that one develops this disease, it comes to affect everyone who is close to them. In severe cases, it is quite possible that an infected person might transmit the condition to those around them, and this is something which is highly undesirable. There are times when treatment for the condition while the patient resides at home proves to be difficult, and the solution is often to have then hospitalized. It is, therefore, essential that the specialist involved in the treatment of the disease to provide the patient with all the treatment options available for them, so that the patient is aware of all the possible ways that their condition might be treated. After doing this, it is the duty of the specialist to advice the patient on what the best treatment options for them are available. When the patient is aware of all the treatment options open to them, it will be immensely easy for them to adjust their lifestyle so that they can dedicate themselves to their recovery.

Teenagers and Plastic Surgery

Over the past few years, statistics have shown that there has been an increase in the number of teenagers opting to go for cosmetic surgery. The most popular of the non-surgical cosmetic procedures among teenagers include laser hair removal and chemical peels, which have grown in popularity especially over the last two years. It has been stated that the most popular cosmetic surgery among teenagers has been cosmetic ear surgery, also known as otoplasty. Some experts in cosmetic surgery state that for some teenage patients, plastic surgery could have a very positive effect in their lives not only physically, but also in their emotional development. Moreover, cosmetic surgery has become so popular among teenagers that their parents are now bestowing them to their children as gifts for their birthdays or even graduations. Many surgeons state that they are seeing more teenagers than ever coming to their practices for the various cosmetic surgery procedures available to them. Despite the fact that many parents and their teenage children have been advised against turning to major surgical procedures as a fix for the teenagers’ self-confidence, the number of teenagers who have undergone these procedures has continued to rise. For example, the number of teenage girls under the age of 18 years who undergo breast augmentation procedures has nearly tripled from one year to the next. Teenagers undergoing cosmetic surgery have become a common phenomenon and it is no longer a procedure reserved for the rich as it has previously been.

In the initial stages before a surgeon can put a teenage patient in the cosmetic surgery procedure, he must assess whether this patient is suited for the procedure, otherwise, the entire procedure would be unethical because the surgeon will only be interested in the patient’s money and not their well-being. The most important thing that a surgeon must consider is whether the patient is physically mature this is because performing an operation on a physical feature, which has not fully developed could interfere with its growth and lead to or could have a negative impact on the surgery in the future. Secondly, the surgeon has to consider the emotional maturity of his patient and not only should he inform the teenager of the benefits of the procedure, but also its limitations and he should make sure that the patient is ready to live with the consequences of the procedure whether it meets their expectations or not. Lastly, teenagers and their parents should be made to understand the risks of undergoing the cosmetic surgery as well as the time it takes to recover from the procedure.

In addition, there has been a growing trend among teenagers towards undergoing cosmetic surgery to improve their appearance. From a handful of these procedures that were done some two decades ago on teenagers, today, a large number of teenagers in their hundreds of thousands, undergo cosmetic surgery. This number has kept on growing over the last ten years and it is actually becoming quite common. For example, the number of lipoplasty procedures for teenagers under the age of 18 years has continued to increase over the years and this has continued to be so despite the very careful selection by surgeons of the patients in this group. Furthermore, of the women who underwent breast augmentation procedures in the year 2010, about two percent of them were under the age of eighteen and this is quite a significant number. The reasons why teenagers go for cosmetic surgery to reduce or increase the size of their breasts, correct the balance between a pair of body parts and in this case mostly breasts and ears, correct the severe underdevelopment of some body parts and finally the need to increase their self-confidence in an environment where they feel insecure.

Many teenagers who wish to undergo plastic surgery are motivated by factors, which are very different from those that influence adults to do the same. Most of them want to improve the physical characteristics, which make them feel and look awkward; moreover, they believe that this awkwardness may pursue them for the rest of their lives. In fact, teenagers are always motivated by the current trends of the time and many undergo surgery just so that they can look similar to their friends or their favorite celebrities. This motivation is quite different from that of adults because they tend to undergo the cosmetic procedure not only to look different from their peers, but also to stand out. The most common physical characteristics, which teenagers often want to change for the better through cosmetic surgery include misshapen noses, protruding ears and either small or overly large breasts. After a successful procedure, many teenagers often regain their confidence because their perceived physical deformities have been corrected. In fact, this procedure if successful tends to make teenagers more confident in their social skills and this ensures that the social withdrawal, which had haunted them before is gone.

There are very strict procedures, which have been put in place to ensure that all teenagers who undergo cosmetic are well suited for it. The most common procedure that is supposed to be undertaken is to establish whether the teenager is mature enough emotionally and that this teenager understands the limitations of the surgical procedure which he is to undergo. Teenagers, and their parents, whose consent they need in order to have cosmetic surgery, have to understand that the effects of the surgical procedure on their bodies will be permanent and cannot be reversed and that they should therefore be very realistic in their expectations about what it will do for them. Moreover, the body of a teenager is more often than not fully developed and those perceived deformities that a teenager may have could be outgrown in time without the need for any surgery.

Many people believe that the increase in the number of teenagers undergoing plastic surgery is not a trend but an evolution, which has led to a new way of life. It is stated that one of the main reasons for this growth is the visibility of the procedure considering the fact that most teenagers are today growing up with parents who have undergone cosmetic surgery and they therefore have more knowledge about it. Media of all types has also made teenagers more aware of the procedures that one has to go through in a plastic surgery procedure and this awareness has ensured that their interest in it is whetted and it has become an acceptable thing among them (Janet, 2004). Teenagers have come to realize that plastic surgery does not only repair their physical appearance but it also boosts their self-confidence, something that they tend to require in the very competitive environment in which they live today. Plastic surgeons are also aware of the problems that teenagers’ face, which leads them to come to the decision to undergo the procedure and the surgeons, therefore, assess their psychological condition before putting them under the knife. Surgeons also recognize the fact that the surgical procedure may not do anything to help a teenager make an advance in their self-confidence and this is as a result of their prior experiences with celebrities who have remained very insecure despite undergoing so many cosmetic surgery procedures. Teenagers should be made to understand that although it is their right to have cosmetic surgery, they should be very careful in their consideration of whether to have it or not. They should realize that their wish to have the surgery should not be expressed lightly because the effects of this procedure will stay with them for the rest of their lives. Whether it is a trend or not, it has to be recognized that teenagers undergoing plastic surgery is something that is here to stay and that it should no longer be a surprising thing.